Literacy as specified in the recent PIAAC survey (OECD 2013) is separated into competence levels. This allows a comparison of adults performing on literacy Level I and below versus those performing on Level IV and above. The PIAAC survey also contains variables on participation in adult education. Core findings confirm the Matthew effect for participation rates, but not for training hours.
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Presentation Fourth Technical Meeting for PIAAC (Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies ), Bonn, 20-21 June 2005